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## Section: Research Program

### Deep neural networks

Autoencoders, Neural Networks, Recurrent Neural Networks

From dictionary learning which we have investigated a lot in the past, our activity is now evolving towards deep learning techniques which we are considering for dimensionality reduction. We address the problem of unsupervised learning of transforms and prediction operators that would be optimal in terms of energy compaction, considering autoencoders and neural network architectures.

An autoencoder is a neural network with an encoder ${g}_{e}$, parametrized by $\theta$, that computes a representation $Y$ from the data $X$, and a decoder ${g}_{d}$, parametrized by $\phi$, that gives a reconstruction $\stackrel{^}{X}$ of $X$ (see Figure below). Autoencoders can be used for dimensionality reduction, compression, denoising. When it is used for compression, the representation need to be quantized, leading to a quantized representation $\stackrel{^}{Y}=Q\left(Y\right)$ (see Figure below). If an autoencoder has fully-connected layers, the architecture, and the number of parameters to be learned, depends on the image size. Hence one autoencoder has to be trained per image size, which poses problems in terms of genericity.

Figure 1. Illustration of an autoencoder.

To avoid this limitation, architectures without fully-connected layer and comprising instead convolutional layers and non-linear operators, forming convolutional neural networks (CNN) may be preferrable. The obtained representation is thus a set of so-called feature maps.

The other problems that we address with the help of neural networks are scene geometry and scene flow estimation, view synthesis, prediction and interpolation with various imaging modalities. The problems are posed either as supervised or unsupervised learning tasks. Our scope of investigation includes autoencoders, convolutional networks, variational autoencoders and generative adversarial networks (GAN) but also recurrent networks and in particular Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) networks. Recurrent neural networks attempting to model time or sequence dependent behaviour, by feeding back the output of a neural network layer at time t to the input of the same network layer at time t+1, have been shown to be interesting tools for temporal frame prediction. LSTMs are particular cases of recurrent networks made of cells composed of three types of neural layers called gates.

Deep neural networks have also been shown to be very promising for solving inverse problems (e.g. super-resolution, sparse recovery in a compressive sensing framework, inpainting) in image processing. Variational autoencoders, generative adversarial networks (GAN), learn, from a set of examples, the latent space or the manifold in which the images, that we search to recover, reside. The inverse problems can be re-formulated using a regularization in the latent space learned by the network. For the needs of the regularization, the learned latent space may need to verify certain properties such as preserving distances or neighborhood of the input space, or in terms of statistical modeling. GANs, trained to produce images that are plausible, are also useful tools for learning texture models, expressed via the filters of the network, that can be used for solving problems like inpainting or view synthesis.