Overall Objectives
Application Domains
Bilateral Contracts and Grants with Industry
Partnerships and Cooperations
Bibliography
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## Section: New Results

### Mining of Complex Data

Participants : Nacira Abbas, Guilherme Alves Da Silva, Alexandre Bazin, Alexandre Blansché, Lydia Boudjeloud-Assala, Quentin Brabant, Brieuc Conan-Guez, Miguel Couceiro, Adrien Coulet, Sébastien Da Silva, Alain Gély, Laurine Huber, Nyoman Juniarta, Florence Le Ber, Tatiana Makhalova, Jean-François Mari, Pierre Monnin, Amedeo Napoli, Laureline Nevin, Abdelkader Ouali, François Pirot, Frédéric Pennerath, Justine Reynaud, Claire Theobald, Yannick Toussaint, Laura Alejandra Zanella Calzada, Georgios Zervakis.

#### FCA and Variations: RCA, Pattern Structures, and Biclustering

Advances in data and knowledge engineering have emphasized the needs for pattern mining tools working on complex and possibly large data. FCA, which usually applies to binary data-tables, can be adapted to work on more complex data. In this way, we have contributed to some main extensions of FCA, namely Pattern Structures, Relational Concept Analysis and application of the “Minimum Description Length” (MDL) within FCA. Pattern Structures (PS [80], [85]) allow building a concept lattice from complex data, e.g. numbers, sequences, trees and graphs. Relational Concept Analysis (RCA [90]) is able to analyze objects described both by binary and relational attributes and can play an important role in text classification and text mining. Many developments were carried out in pattern mining and FCA for improving data mining algorithms and their applicability, and for solving some specific problems such as information retrieval, discovery of functional dependencies and biclustering.

We got several results in the discovery of approximate functional dependencies [29], the mining of RDF data, the visualization of the discovered patterns, and redescription mining. Moreover, based on Relational Concept Analysis, we worked also on the discovery and representation of $n$-ary relations in the framework of FCA [3]. In the same way, reusing ideas form subgroup discovery, we have initiated a whole line of research on the covering of the pattern spaces based on the “Minimum Description Length” (MDL) principle and we are working on the adaptation of MDL within the FCA framework [36] [7].

We are also working on designing hybrid mining methods, based on mining methods able to deal with symbolic and numerical data in parallel. In the context of the GEENAGE project, we are interested in the identification, in biomedical data, of biomarkers that are predictive of the development of diseases in the elderly population. Actually, the data are issued from a preceding study on metabolomic data for the detection of diabetes of type 2 [23]. The problem can be viewed as a classification problem where features which are predictive of a class should be identified. This leads us to study the notions of prediction and discrimination in classification problems. Combining numerical machine learning methods such as random forests, neural networks, and SVM, then multicriteria decision making methods (Pareto fronts), and pattern mining methods (including FCA), we developed a hybrid mining approach for selecting the features which are the most predictive and/or discriminant. Then the selected features are organized within a concept lattice to be presented to the analyst together with the reasons for their selection. The concept lattice makes more easy and natural the understanding of the feature selection. As such, this approach can also be seen as an explicable mining method, where the output includes the reasons for which features are selected in terms of prediction and discrimination.

In the framework of the CrossCult European Project about cultural heritage, we worked on the mining of visitor trajectories in a museum or a touristic site. We presented a theoretical and practical research work about the characterization of visitor trajectories and the mining of these trajectories as sequences [83], [84]. The mining process is based on two approaches in the framework of FCA. We focused on different types of sequences and more precisely on subsequences without any constraint and frequent contiguous subsequences. We also introduced a similarity measure allowing us to build a hierarchical classification which is used for interpretation and characterization of the trajectories. A natural extension of this research work on the characterization of trajectories is related to recommendation, i.e. based on an actual trajectory, how to recommend next items to be visited? Biclustering is a good candidate for designing recommendation methods and we especially worked on this topic this current year. In particular, we worked on several aspects of biclustering in the framework of FCA and we also tried to build a generic and unified framework from which several biclustering methods can be derived [34], [52].

#### Redescription Mining

Redescription mining is one of the pattern mining methods developed in the team. This method aims at finding distinct common characterizations of the same objects and, reciprocally, at identifying sets of objects having multiple shared descriptions [89]. This is motivated by the idea that in scientific investigations data oftentimes have different nature. For example, they might originate from distinct sources or be cast over separate terminologies.

In order to gain insight into the phenomenon of interest, a natural task is to identify the correspondences existing between these different aspects. A practical example in biology consists in finding geographical areas having two characterizations, one in terms of their climatic profile and one in terms of the occupying species. Discovering such redescriptions can contribute to better understand the influence of climate over species distribution. Besides biology, redescription mining can be applied in many concrete domains.

Following this way, we applied redescription mining for analyzing and mining RDF data in the web of data with the objective of discovering definitions of concepts and as well disjunctions (incompatibilities) of concepts, for completing knowledge bases in a semi-automated way [41] [10]. Redescription mining is well adapted to the task as a definition is naturally based on two sides of an equation, a left-hand side and a right-hand side.

#### Text Mining

The research work in text mining is mainly based on two ongoing PhD theses. The first research subject is related to the study of discourse and argumentation structures in a text based on tree mining and redescription mining [33], while the second research work is related to the mining of Pubmed abstracts about rare diseases. In the first research line, we investigate the similarities existing between discourse and argumentation structures by aligning subtrees in a corpus where texts are annotated. Contrasting related work, here we focus on the comparison of substructures within the text and not only the matching of relations. Based on data mining techniques such as tree mining and redescription mining, we are able to show that the structures underlying discourse and argumentation can be (partially) aligned. There the annotations related to discourse and argumentation allow us to derive a mapping between the structures. In addition, the approach enables the study of similarities between diverse discourse structures, and as well the differences in terms of expressive power.

In the second research line, the objective is to discover features related to rare diseases, e.g. symptoms, related diseases, treatments, and possible disease evolution or variations. The texts to be analyzed are from Pubmed, i.e. a platform collecting millions of publications in the medical domain. This research project aims at developing new methods and tools for supporting knowledge discovery in textual data by combining methods from Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD). Here a key idea is to design an interacting and convergent process where NLP methods are used for guiding text mining and KDD methods are used for analyzing textual documents. In this way, NLP is based on extraction of general and temporal information, while KDD methods are especially based on pattern mining, FCA, and graph mining.

#### Consensus, Aggregation Functions and Multicriteria Decision Aiding Functions

Aggregation and consensus theory study processes dealing with the problem of merging or fusing several objects, e.g., numerical or qualitative data, preferences or other relational structures, into a single or several objects of similar type and that best represents them in some way. Such processes are modeled by so-called aggregation or consensus functions [81], [82]. The need to aggregate objects in a meaningful way appeared naturally in classical topics such as mathematics, statistics, physics and computer science, but it became increasingly emergent in applied areas such as social and decision sciences, artificial intelligence and machine learning, biology and medicine.

We are working on a theoretical basis of a unified theory of consensus and to set up a general machinery for the choice and use of aggregation functions. This choice depends on properties specified by users or decision makers, the nature of the objects to aggregate as well as computational limitations due to prohibitive algorithmic complexity. This problem demands an exhaustive study of aggregation functions that requires an axiomatic treatment and classification of aggregation procedures as well as a deep understanding of their structural behavior. It also requires a representation formalism for knowledge, in our case decision rules and methods for discovering them. Typical approaches include rough-set and FCA approaches, that we aim to extend in order to increase expressivity, applicability and readability of results. Applications of these efforts already appeared and further are expected in the context of three multidisciplinary projects, namely the “Fight Heart Failure” (research project with the Faculty of Medicine in Nancy), the European H2020 “CrossCult” project, and the “ISIPA” (Interpolation, Sugeno Integral, Proportional Analogy) project.

In the context of the project RHU “Fighting Heart Failure” (that aims to identify and describe relevant bio-profiles of patients suffering from heart failure) we are dealing with biomedical data, highly complex and heterogeneous, that include, among other, sociodemographical aspects, biological and clinical features, drugs taken by the patients, etc. One of our main challenges is to define relevant aggregation operators on this heterogeneous patient data that lead to a clustering of the patients. Each cluster should correspond to a bio-profile, i.e. a subgroup of patients sharing the same form of the disease and thus the same diagnosis and medical care strategy. We are working on ways for comparing and clustering patients, namely, by defining multidimensional similarity measures on this complex and heterogeneous biomedical data. To this end, we recently proposed a novel approach, that we named “unsupervised extremely randomized trees” (UET), that is inspired by the frameworks of unsupervised random forests (URF) and of extremely randomized trees (ET). The empirical study of UET showed that it outperforms existing methods (such as URF) in running time, while giving better clustering. However, UET was implemented for numerical data only, and this is a drawback when dealing with biomedical data.

To overcome this limitation we have recently proposed an adaptation of UET [63] that is agnostic to variable types –numerical, symbolic or both–, that is robust to noise, to correlated variables, and to monotone transformations, thus drastically limiting the need for preprocessing. In addition, this provides similarity measures for clustering purposes that show outperforming results compared to state-of-the-art clustering methodologies.

Also, motivated by current trends in graph clustering for applications in the semantic web, and community identification in computer and social networks, we recently proposed a novel graph clustering method, i.e. GraphTrees [61], that is based on random decision trees to compute pairwise dissimilarities between vertices in vertex-attributed graphs. Unlike existing methodologies, it applies directly to graphs whose vertex-attributes are heterogeneous without preprocessing, and with promising results in benchmark datasets that are competitive with best known methods.

In the context of the project ISIPA, we mainly focused on the utility-based preference model in which preferences are represented as an aggregation of preferences over different attributes, structured or not, both in the numerical and qualitative settings. In the latter case, the Sugeno integral is widely used in multiple criteria decision making and decision under uncertainty, for computing global evaluations of items based on local evaluations (utilities). The combination of a Sugeno integral with local utilities is called a Sugeno utility functional (SUF). A noteworthy property of SUFs is that they represent multi-threshold decision rules. However, not all sets of multi-threshold rules can be represented by a single SUF. We showed how to represent any set of multi-threshold rules as a combination of SUFs. Moreover, we studied their potential advantages as a compact representation of large sets of rules, as well as an intermediary step for extracting rules from empirical datasets [51]. We also proposed a novel method [58] for learning sets of decision rules that optimally fit the training data and that favors short rules over long ones. This is a competitive alternative to other methods for monotonic classification as in [78].